Skills 17.5 & 17.6

Sections 17.4 & 17.3

Start and end with the “big picture” through effective titles, introductions, and conclusions. What readers need from principle creates a closed approach is an ability to predict what is coming as well as regular fulfillment of those predictions. Lay out the “big picture” of your essay with their title and introduction and then return to the “big picture” in the conclusion.

Don’t use “topic title” and “funnel introduction”. Never start with broad generalizations and then narrow it down to your topic. A better approach is to hook your readers immediately with an effective title and a problem-prosing introduction.

Good titles follow the principle of old before new information. A good title needs to have something old (a word or phrase hooks into a reader’s existing interests) and something new (a word or phrase that forecasts the writer’s problematic question, thesis, or purpose). Composing a title for your essay can help you find your focus when you get stuck in the middle of a draft. It forces you to focus on what is old and what is new for your audience.

Old information is what your readers already know. New information is the surprise of your argument, the unfamiliar material that you add to your readers’ understanding. Your thesis statement forecasts the new information the paper will present, a thesis statement in closed-form prose comes at the end of the introduction. Before the thesis in the introduction is usually the problem stated or the old information. First- problem, (old information). Then-thesis, (new information).

Typical elements of a Closed-Form Introduction:

• An opening attention-grabber.
• Explanation of the question to be investigated.
• Background information.
• A preview of where your paper is heading.

Pages 384-387

Proposal arguments call an audience to action. They make a claim that some action should or ought to be taken.

Practical proposals focus on local, practical problems and generally target a specific audience-usually the person with the power to act on the proposal.

A policy proposal addresses public policy issues with the aim of swaying the public’s support toward the writer’s proposed solution.

The power of proposal arguments is often enhanced with images which can appeal to both logos and pathos. Proposals sometimes take the form of multimodal texts such as posters or advocacy advertisements calling an audience to action.

Proposals can also be delivered as oral presentations such as presenting at a public hearing.

All proposals have one feature in common-they offer a solution to a problem. Your task is to convince readers that the problem is worth solving, that your proposed solution will actually work, and that the benefits outweigh the costs. 

A proposal argument typically has three parts:

• Description of the problem
• Proposal for a solution
• Justification

To get your readers to take action-the ultimate purpose of a proposal-you must overcome some difficult challenges. 

• To give the problem presence:

• Use anecdotes or examples of people suffering from the problem.
• Provide startling facts or statistics to dramatize the problem.
• Include a photograph or other image that conveys the problem.
• Use other appeals to pathos.

• Appealing to the interests and values of decision makers:

• Show decision makers how acting on your proposal will benefit them directly.
• Use audience-based reasons.
• If appropriate appeal to idealism and principle (do the right thing, even if it will cause temporary grief).
• Show how benefits to the sufferers outweigh costs to others.

• Overcoming inherent conservatism:

• Emphasize the seriousness of the problem.
• Stress the benefits of solving the problem.
• Show that the risks are minimal.
• Show that negative consequences are unlikely.

• Predicting consequences:

• Take care not to overpraise benefits.
• Persuade readers that your predictions are realistic-show how the links in the chain lead directly from the solution to the benefits.
• Cite cases where a similar proposal led to real benefits.

• Evaluating consequences:

• Use money as measurement.
• Emphasize the benefits of increased happiness, less suffering and/or saved time.
• Emphasize the greatest good for the greatest number.
• Emphasize idealism and principle.

Chapter 1, Concept 1.1 & Chapter 20, Skill 20.1

Subject matter problems are the heart of college writing. A thesis statement is the main point a writer wants to make in an essay. What is the question that lies behind the thesis? What is the problem or issue that the writer is wrestling with? Experienced writers immerse themselves in subject matter questions in pursuit of answers or solutions.

Shared problems unite writers and readers. A good, interesting question is at the heart of good writing.

Where do problems come from? Good questions do not always have right answers. The kinds of questions that stimulate the writing most valued in college are open-ended questions that focus on unknowns or invite multiple points of view. A good question sets the writer on the path of inquiry, critical thinking, analysis, and argument. You can write about questions or problems that are already “out there” or you can initiate your own.

Argue your own thesis in response to a research question. The best way to produce effective, engaged, and ethically responsible research papers is to begin with a good research question. There is a difference between topic focus and question focus. A topic focus invites you to collect information without a clear purpose. A question focus encourages active construction of meaning. 

Write with your own voice. Think about the topic enough that you form your own opinion and can express your own feelings. You can test the initial feasibility of your research question by considering the following prompts:

• Are you personally interested in this question?
• Is the question both problematic and significant?
• Is the question limited enough for the intended length of your paper?
• Is there a reasonable possibility of finding information on this question based on the time and resources you have available?
• Is the question appropriate for your level of expertise?

Writing Project 7.4

An annotated bibliography includes the writer’s “annotation” or commentary on each source. These annotations can be either summary-only or evaluative.

Summary-only Annotations: Provides a capsule of the source’s contents without any additional comments from the bibliography’s author.

Evaluative Annotations: Adds the author’s critique or assessment of the work, including comments about the source’s rhetorical context, its particular strengths or weaknesses, and its usefulness or value.

Annotations can vary in length. Short annotations that are only a few sentences long are most common when there are multiple entries. Long annotations can be up to 150 words and are more detailed analyses or fuller summaries. Long annotations can make an annotated bibliography too long if there are numerous entries. Reading articles rhetorically and writing annotated bibliographies helps us become more engaged in the research and really prompt us to think in exploratory ways.

Each entry of an annotated bibliography has 2 parts, a bibliographic citation and an evaluative annotation. A bibliographic citation should cite the source in either MLA or APA format. An evaluative annotation usually includes 3 parts:

• Rhetorical information-includes the source’s rhetorical context (genre,purpose, and audience). Are there any biases to be noted?
• A summary of the source’s content.-Summarize the source’s actual argument whenever possible.
• The writer’s evaluation of the source-what are the source’s particular strengths and weaknesses? How useful is the source for specific purposes? How might the writer use the source in a research project?

A critical preface explains the scope and purpose of the bibliography. Highlight your critical thinking and show the way that you conducted your research. Include:

• A contextual overview that shows the purpose of the annotated bibliography and suggests its value and significance for the reader.
• The research question posed by the author.
• The dates during which the bibliography was compiled.
• An overview of the number of items in the bibliography and the kinds of material included.

The key to producing a good annotated bibliography is to take good research notes as you read.

Sections: 2.2, 2.3, 17.4 & 17.10

A strong thesis statement surprises readers with something new or challenging. Your answers to your subject-matter question becomes your thesis statement. A strong thesis usually contains an element of uncertainty, risk, or challenge. A thesis is something to be quarreled with. A strong thesis surprises the reader with a new, unexpected, different, or challenging view of the writer's topic. There are two suggested ways written in the text to create a surprising thesis.

1. Trying to change your reader's view of your subject. 

2. Giving your thesis tension.

To change your reader's view of your subject, you must first imagine how the reader would view the subject before reading your essay. Then, you can articulate how you aim to change that view. 

For example: Before reading my essay, my readers think this way about my topic. After reading it, my readers will think this way. You can enlarge your reader's view by introducing new points and information. You can clarify your readers view of something that was previously fuzzy, tentative, or uncertain. You can restructure readers' whole view of a subject.

The old/new contract is when the thesis comes at the end of the introduction. What precedes the thesis is the explanation of the problem that she is addressing or the conversation that she is joining. This is also called the, "problem-before-thesis-structure." Start the introduction with a question to hook the readers. Features of an effective introduction include...

• Topic area and context
• A direct or implied question
• An indication of how the question invites tension, evoked controversy, or is otherwise problematic.
• An indication of how the question is significant or worth examining.
• The writer's thesis, which brings something new to the audience.

Start and end with the "big picture" through effective titles, introduction, and conclusion. Do not make broad generalizations in your introduction. 

Suggestions for effective titles:

• State or imply the question that your essay addresses. 
• State or imply, often in abbreviated form, your thesis.

For good closed-form introductions, present something old or something already known, and something new or something the audience did not previously know, that may surprise them. 

Problem equals old information. Thesis equals new information. 

Typical elements of a closed-form introduction:

• An opening attention-grabber. 
• Explanation of the question to be investigated. 
• Background information. 
• A preview of where your paper is heading.

Use occasional open-form elements to create voice in closed-form prose.

Chapter 5, Section 5.1

When you read with the grain of a text, you see the world through the author's perspective, apply the texts insights to new contexts, and connect its ideas to your own experience and personal knowledge.
When you read against the grain, you resist it by questioning its points, raising doubts, analyzing the limits of it's perspective, or even refuting its argument. It is very important to read a text and be able to analyze and really understand it. You should be able to summarize it's ideas.

Both, reading against the grain and reading with the grain are extremely important strategies. There are suggestions for both listed in the text.

Suggestions for reading with the grain:

• Listen to the text, follow the author without judgment.
• Try and see the subject through the author's perspective.
• Add support to thesis with your own points and examples.
• Apply the argument in new ways.

Suggestions for reading against the grain:

• Challenge, question, and resist the author's ideas.
• Point out what the author missed or overlooked.
• Identify what is unsupported or inaccurate in the argument.
• Rebut the author's ideas with counter-reasoning  and counterexamples.

There are a variety of things that make college reading difficult and prevent you from reading effectively. Some things that make it difficult are: new subject matter, vocabulary-unfamiliar words or language, unfamiliar rhetorical context-not knowing the author's purpose or intended audience, unfamiliar genre-different genres require different reading strategies, and/or a lack of background knowledge-not understanding culture or context.

Some strategies for overcoming these difficulties and reading like an expert are:

• Reconstruct the rhetorical context. (Ask questions about purpose, audience, etc. Look up info about the author.)
• Take notes
• Match your reading speed with your goals.
• Read a complex text in a "multidraft" way.
• Use summary writing.

Summary writing is a condensed, abstract version of the text. It demonstrates your understanding and can help you retain what you read in order to analyze the text and create new views and arguments.

Chapter 13, Pages 309-317

Ideology is a network of basic values, beliefs, and assumptions that tend to guide a person's view of the world. If you keep an open-mind as you read, your initial stance or opinion may be swayed or changed. Ideology is subject to change. Your views may change during further reflection of a topic. It may also be changed as you read what other people point out about a topic with an open-mind.

A classical argument involves two components: truth seeking and persuasion. Truth-seeking is diligent, open-minded, and responsible search for the best course of action or solution to a problem, considering all possibilities and points of view. Persuasion is making a claim and justifying it convincingly so that the audience's initial resistance to your position is overcome and they are moved toward your position.

It is important not to think of an argument as a fight. Think of it instead as promoting understanding, new ways of seeing, and change. Another view of an argument to avoid is a pro/con debate. Debating is two-sided with a clear winner and a clear loser. Controversial arguments involve many points of view and are much more complex. Rather than fight or debate, argument is both a process and a product. As a process it is fact-finding, information gathering, and consideration of alternative points of view. As a product, an argument is someone's contribution to the conversation.

The goal of argument as process is truth seeking: the goal of argument as a product is persuasion. There are five skills and stages of development that will help you grow as an arguer.

Stage 1: Argument as a personal opinion. The argument is passionate, but there is no reason or evidence why someone should agree with your opinion.

Stage 2: Argument structured as a claim supported by one or more reasons.

Stage 3: Increased attention to truth seeking. Often willing to change their positions when they see the power of other arguments.

Stage 4: Ability to articulate the unstated assumptions underlying their arguments.

Stage 5: Ability to link an argument to the values and beliefs of the intended audience.

Chapter 13, Pages 329 & 330

Informal fallacies are when the reasoning in an argument doesn't necessarily lead to a sound conclusion. Sometimes fallacies are unintentional and just happen, other times they are intentionally used to deceive the audience. A fallacy is basically anything that could potentially be an invalid argument. The text states a list of fallacies.

Chapter 3, Sections 3.1 & 3.2

Section 3.1 talked mostly about angle of vision. I learned that angle of vision can be an extremely effective strategy in persuasive writing. Angle of vision makes it so the reader can only see a topic or subject from one point of view. It controls what the reader sees. As the writer, you can reveal what you want your audience to know and what will persuade them of your prose, and you can conceal anything that would broaden their view to think another way. One example of angle of vision used in the text was the difference between a description of a party to your friend versus the description of a party to your parents. The same story can be told in entirely different ways based on what you want your audience to think.

Strategies to persuade through angle of vision:

• Stating point of view directly
• Selecting some details while omitting others
• Choosing words or figures of speech with intended connotations
• Creating emphasis or de-emphasis through sentence structure and organization

The main thing I learned from 3.1 was that the writer controls what the reader sees. "In an effective piece of writing, the author's angle of vision often works so subtly that unsuspecting readers - unless thinking rhetorically - will be drawn into the writer's spell and believe that the writer's prose conveys the "whole picture" of it's subject rather than a limited picture filtered through the screen of a writer's perspective."

Section 3.2 was about Aristotle's Logos, Ethos and Pathos. These are strategies used in persuasion. Logos is the appeal to reason. It would point out why, "logically" your argument is correct. Ethos is the appeal to the character of the writer or speaker. It is not so much the ethical character, but the way that the author is credible or gives them the right to have a stance on a topic. Pathos is the appeal to sympathies, values, beliefs, and emotions of the audience.

Chapter 18, Skills 18.2 & 18.4

Ladder of abstraction is when words can be arranged from being extremely abstract to being very specific. When you describe things in such a way that the reader almost feels as if they are reliving the story, it evokes images and you are low on the ladder of abstraction. When you are low on that ladder you are being extremely specific and descriptive.

Concrete words are descriptive words that invoke images and sensations. They can transform a story from being bland and boring to being lively and enchanting. You can get the same point across without using concrete words, but the story will be a lot less entertaining and engaging and a lot more bland. Sometimes using unfamiliar and unique language or words can confuse the reader. As long as you elaborate and explain what you are saying, it can puzzle and excite the reader for a brief moment. They can look forward to finding out the meaning. Even the sound of the word itself can invoke imagery and sensation.

When you use metaphors you can make literal words and experiences more exciting and tangible. Sometimes it is hard to explain an event and write it out so the reader can feel and experience the emotion that you felt during the actual event. "Figurative language abounds when literal words fail." Using metaphors can make a picture more clear and make an experience more realistic and exciting. Trope is a synonym for figurative language. There are more way than just metaphors to use figurative language. Ambiguous words can have double meanings. These words can immerse the reader deeper into the imagery and story.

Chapter 18, Skill 18.1

When writing a narrative it is so important to make it into an engaging story that is unpredictable and entertaining. You can easily list off a timeline of events and get the same point across, but the point of a narrative is to express and explore. Try and tell a story by describing and showing the events rather than just explaining them. There is a four criteria for a story.

1. Depiction of events through time
Let each piece of the story unfold through time and make a small story out of each event. It will make the story more engaging if you treat each event as an event that only happened once and point out the significance of each part of the story through time. This is a much better way of writing than just listing off events in order.

 2. Connectedness
Each event in a story must be connected to each other. Every event in your story should be significantly related to the theme or the point you are trying to make. Only mention events connected to the main point of your story.

3. Tension
Tension is like the hook. Conflict keeps the reader engaged and interested in what the resolution will be.

4. Resolution
You don't always have to clearly explain the resolution. Especially in narratives, the theme or resolution can be implied or inferred. "The resolution is the point toward which readers read."

It is important to incorporate each of these four criteria in every narrative in order to create an engaging story rather than a "chronology."

Chapter 6 Literacy Narratives & Questions For Peer Review

In an autobiographical narrative you don't state your thesis you slowly reveal it in a creative and artistic way. On the spectrum of closed to open form writing it would definitely err on the open form end. There are certain writing techniques and strategies for this type of writing and this genre. In order to make an autobiographical narrative engaging you don't necessarily need an interesting story or a miraculous event in your life. In order to make it engaging there needs to be a question behind it just like other genres of writing.

An autobiographical narrative can be about anytime that you experiences something or thought a certain way that made you have an epiphany. Sometimes you can think a certain way about a person and then once you hear about them or understand why they are the way that they are, your opinion of them completely changes. This would be an epiphany to write about but you don't just state the facts, you make it into a story. You can make it engaging and you can make a seemingly insignificant event into a meaningful life experience.

"As you generate and explore ideas, your goal is to develop a plot-a significant moment or insight arising out of contrariety-that you can develop with the storytelling strategies of open-form prose. If you are still searching for ideas, the following questions might help."

• Questions arising from your achievement of a new status
• Questions arising from challenges to your normal assumptions about life or from your failure to fit or fulfill others' expectations of you
• Questions arising from conflicts of values or failure to live up to values

Chapter 16, Skill 16.4

When you revise your writing, you need to review it as if you were a reader rather than the writer of the paper. It is very important to read it as if you were another person who thinks in a different way. If you edit your own writing as the writer, it will be really difficult to catch mistakes and to notice when something doesn't make sense. As the writer, whatever you wrote will most likely make sense to you even if it may not to someone else. Try and become a reader when you edit your papers. When you peer review other people's papers and have them revise yours, you get better at editing your own writing as a reader.

It is very important to revise other people's papers in a helpful and constructive way. When you make comments or suggestions it is very important to be specific so that the writer understands exactly what to change and/or improve in their writing. The goal when you are revising is to bring parts of the paper that need to be worked on to the writer's attention and to think of other ways they could possibly improve their work. This could be suggestions on improving an overall thought or idea. It could even be suggesting a different point that they didn't consider. Play "the devil's advocate."

When it comes time for someone else to peer review your essay, give them a couple of questions regarding your paper that they could respond to. Ask them for help on any specific part that you struggled with. You can also ask them for any advice concerning your paper. Your peers may have great suggestions that you didn't think of! Once it is revised, take the advice you received for what it's worth. Reconsider your ideas and continue to revise and keep in mind what other people suggested. In the end remember that you are the writer.

Chapter 1, Concept 1.3

Subject matter problems are questions behind the thesis you are writing about and rhetorical problems are questions about the audience you are writing to. Not all good writing follows a specific set of rules and the rules of writing vary depending on the genre, audience, style, etc.

Thesis-based writing is more unified with topic sentences, support, and other elements that fit the typical "5-paragraph essay." While narrative-based writing is much more expressive and creative and doesn't follow the typical set of rules for writing. Closed form prose fits more under thesis-based writing and open form prose would be under the category of narrative-based writing.

Closed form prose is when you write in a structured way with points and details in support of an "explicit thesis." It is very predictable writing and it is the way that most essays in college are to be written. Typically in closed form prose writing, the writer states a thesis and introduces what he/she will talk about. This introduction is followed by topic sentences and supporting evidence.

Open form prose is quite the opposite. It "resists reduction to a single, summarize-able thesis." Open form prose is a completely different style that is more creative and story-like. There are many different literary techniques used in open form prose that help create writing that is more powerful and memorable that a typical, 5-paragraph essay. Many close form rules are broken in open form but it works because it is a different way of writing. Although this way of writing is more artistic and free, there is still a focus and it is still organized. 

I learned a lot from this section of the text but something that stuck out the most to me was when it stated that, "Exploratory essays are aimed at deepening the reader's engagement with a question and resisting easy answers." This sentence really sums up our problematizing a topic assignment. I also liked the way that it explained how the rules for good writing vary according to rhetorical context.

Chapter 2, concept 2.1 & Chapter 14, pg 372

This reading got me excited to write on things that are truly interesting to me and my audience. I really liked how well the text explained how to "wallow in complexity" and now I understand how important it is to take that step and really analyze every aspect of a question. I learned that the starting point for a writer is a "good, interesting question." I understand now that my audience is not necessarily looking for a right answer. They are looking to be engaged and exposed to well-supported, alternate views.

The text mentions six skills to be able to wallow in complexity that I would like to implement in my writing process. The first is to be able to prose problematic questions. Second, the ability to analyze all dimensions of a problem. This means to be able to consider all the different views and realize the good and bad in all sides including your own. Third, the ability to gather research and information that is relevant to the issue. Fourth, imagine alternative solutions and perspectives. Fifth, the ability to analyze opposing opinions and construct arguments for and against them, and then choose the best solution. The last skill required to wallow in complexity is the ability to effectively argue while considering opposing sides.

I also learned a lot about the writing process. There were different strategies explained for your writing process and how to use them to brainstorm. I really like the ideas suggested and I want to try two of them specifically. I think that free-writing and dialectic conversation will be the most effective strategies for me personally. Free-writing is where you simply let your thoughts flow onto the paper. It is totally unorganized but it is very effective to get the creative process started. Dialectic conversation is talking about the subject or topic your are interested in writing about in a civil way and exploring different views. It is important to keep an open mind and consider all of the strengths and weaknesses for each perspective. I think this strategy will really help me develop a valid opinion of my own.

Chapter 16, Skills 16.1, 16.2, & 16.3

In this reading I learned so many awesome skills that I can't wait to apply to my writing. I have only used one writing process and it is extremely simple compared to what I read about. I think using the skills I learned will improve my writing in so many ways. I had no idea that the writing process that expert writers use was so extensive. I definitely want to spend a lot more time in each step of my writing process and add additional steps.

I have been doing my First Draft wrong all along. I love the way the text describes this step as a way to "discover, deepen, and complicate your ideas." I also really like the idea that you don't need a certain amount of revisions or drafts. The more you revise the better your paper will be. In my editing process I want to practice globally and locally revising. I don't want to be afraid of throwing out big chunks of writing to make room for improvement.

From now on as I write, rather than just thinking of a thesis statement and supporting it, I am going to explore and focus on the creative process. I am going to research something that I am interested in that would appeal to my readers. Once I have considered all the facts and opinions that I find, and discovered new curiosities, my thesis will naturally form. "The writing process is recursive rather than linear."

The text offers 10 habits to develop in our writing. I loved all of the advice but I want to focus on 2 of the habits in particular as I write. The first, discover the best drafting methods for me. Now that I have all of these new tools, I want to experiment and find which drafting methods work the best for my personal writing style. The second, think about audience and purpose from the start. I usually start out writing to myself and what sounds best to me. Instead, I want to think about my audience and what effect I want to have on them right from the start.

Chapter 1, Concepts 1.1 & 1.2

This reading assignment made me realize how important it is to write to my audience. When I wrote papers in the past, I would assume that my teacher and fellow classmates would be the only readers. I never really put much thought into my audience. Some questions I want to start asking myself as I write are, "Who will read my writing?" and "What info do I need to provide to engage them?".

It is important to be relatable and to put yourself in the reader's shoes. As I write I'm going to try and understand what they know about the subject and how in depth I need to explain it in order for them to understand. You must ask yourself, "How do they feel about this subject?" also needing to be able to prove that I know what I'm writing about. What gives me the right or makes me credible to write about this topic? I want to do as much research as I can when I write about something to make sure I qualify to have an opinion and share it.

When I choose something to write about it needs to be interesting to me, something I'm passionate about. To begin, I must find a problem to write about that is important to both me, and my reader(s). While, keeping in mind the difference between "subject matter problems" and "rhetorical problems." Rather than focusing on my own opinion, I'll focus on the problem or question behind my thesis. This will engage the reader. Then, I can prose my side and introduce my thoughts and opinions in order to  broaden the reader's view and bring up new thoughts or ideas for the subject.