Skills 17.5 & 17.6

Sections 17.4 & 17.3

Start and end with the “big picture” through effective titles, introductions, and conclusions. What readers need from principle creates a closed approach is an ability to predict what is coming as well as regular fulfillment of those predictions. Lay out the “big picture” of your essay with their title and introduction and then return to the “big picture” in the conclusion.

Don’t use “topic title” and “funnel introduction”. Never start with broad generalizations and then narrow it down to your topic. A better approach is to hook your readers immediately with an effective title and a problem-prosing introduction.

Good titles follow the principle of old before new information. A good title needs to have something old (a word or phrase hooks into a reader’s existing interests) and something new (a word or phrase that forecasts the writer’s problematic question, thesis, or purpose). Composing a title for your essay can help you find your focus when you get stuck in the middle of a draft. It forces you to focus on what is old and what is new for your audience.

Old information is what your readers already know. New information is the surprise of your argument, the unfamiliar material that you add to your readers’ understanding. Your thesis statement forecasts the new information the paper will present, a thesis statement in closed-form prose comes at the end of the introduction. Before the thesis in the introduction is usually the problem stated or the old information. First- problem, (old information). Then-thesis, (new information).

Typical elements of a Closed-Form Introduction:

• An opening attention-grabber.
• Explanation of the question to be investigated.
• Background information.
• A preview of where your paper is heading.

Pages 384-387

Proposal arguments call an audience to action. They make a claim that some action should or ought to be taken.

Practical proposals focus on local, practical problems and generally target a specific audience-usually the person with the power to act on the proposal.

A policy proposal addresses public policy issues with the aim of swaying the public’s support toward the writer’s proposed solution.

The power of proposal arguments is often enhanced with images which can appeal to both logos and pathos. Proposals sometimes take the form of multimodal texts such as posters or advocacy advertisements calling an audience to action.

Proposals can also be delivered as oral presentations such as presenting at a public hearing.

All proposals have one feature in common-they offer a solution to a problem. Your task is to convince readers that the problem is worth solving, that your proposed solution will actually work, and that the benefits outweigh the costs. 

A proposal argument typically has three parts:

• Description of the problem
• Proposal for a solution
• Justification

To get your readers to take action-the ultimate purpose of a proposal-you must overcome some difficult challenges. 

• To give the problem presence:

• Use anecdotes or examples of people suffering from the problem.
• Provide startling facts or statistics to dramatize the problem.
• Include a photograph or other image that conveys the problem.
• Use other appeals to pathos.

• Appealing to the interests and values of decision makers:

• Show decision makers how acting on your proposal will benefit them directly.
• Use audience-based reasons.
• If appropriate appeal to idealism and principle (do the right thing, even if it will cause temporary grief).
• Show how benefits to the sufferers outweigh costs to others.

• Overcoming inherent conservatism:

• Emphasize the seriousness of the problem.
• Stress the benefits of solving the problem.
• Show that the risks are minimal.
• Show that negative consequences are unlikely.

• Predicting consequences:

• Take care not to overpraise benefits.
• Persuade readers that your predictions are realistic-show how the links in the chain lead directly from the solution to the benefits.
• Cite cases where a similar proposal led to real benefits.

• Evaluating consequences:

• Use money as measurement.
• Emphasize the benefits of increased happiness, less suffering and/or saved time.
• Emphasize the greatest good for the greatest number.
• Emphasize idealism and principle.